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          • How to activate infrastructure stimulus through accelerated assessment
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          • GHD Advisory Delivers Landmark Rehabilitation Plan for Port Terminal
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          • A Flexible Approach to Using eDNA
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          • Fostering resilient workplace productivity
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        • Changing the world in Toronto
        • David Kinniburgh named Regional General Manager - UAE
        • Designing a net-zero energy plan with the Australian Academy of Science
        • GHD Advisory supports BP Australia’s sustainable hydrogen feasibility study
        • GHD appointed to design new Navy facilities in Western Australia
        • GHD joins Australian Hydrogen Council
        • GHD Provides Social Distancing Solution to NHS Children’s Hospital
        • GHD to implement Digital Train Control for Cross River Rail
        • GHD is leading the way in Waste Management across Australia
        • GHD is taking the lead in the competition for future talent
        • Growing our natural resources expertise with addition of Niblett Environmental Associates team
        • Landmark UAE park named Education Project of the Year
        • Preparing Australian electricity systems for large-scale hydrogen production
        • Poll shows employees are uncomfortable returning to work without social distancing measures
        • Reinventing engineering for a rapidly changing world
        • Qatar field hospital designed from scratch in less than two weeks
        • Our industrial hygiene team keeps employees safe as they return to work
        • Transforming transport in regional South Australia
        • A balancing act: Getting to grips with biodiversity offsetting and mitigation banking
        • A message from Water for Women on International Women’s Day
        • AquaLAB Connect helps shape the digital future of water
        • Auckland’s Lightpath cycleway takes the lead with prestigious award
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        • Advising on one of Australia’s largest infrastructure transactions
        • Celebrating Australia’s top projects
        • Arizona water reclamation facility helps conserve groundwater
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        • Strength in North America highlights our ability to serve clients and communities in uncertain times
        • GHD Advisory named Australasia’s #1 technical advisor for transactions
        • GHD’s new NZ leader focuses on high performance
        • Demonstrating our market leadership in Canada
        • GHD appoints Sheila Mistry as People Leader for UK
        • GHD Advisory strengthens UAE team
        • Developing a first-of-its-kind mangrove park for UAE
        • Global merger delivers integrated data-led consulting
        • New operations lead will help drive growth in the northeast United States
        • GHD helps Middle East clients address energy challenges
        • GHD’s Global Digital Leader moves to North America
        • GHD helps students to embrace Indo-Pacific opportunities
        • Collaboration to provide innovative new wireless stormwater monitoring solution
        • GHD welcomes National Strategy to support a thriving hydrogen industry
        • New beginnings: How Nivine re-started her career in Australia
        • GHD Digital’s Jacyl Shaw named ‘Microsoft Executive Leader of the Year’
        • GHD reinforces strategic focus in North America
        • New operations lead will help drive growth in the northeast United States
        • GHD partners with Galliford Try on Yorkshire Water Civils Framework
        • GHD celebrates 10 years in Papua New Guinea
        • Creating a single source of truth for digital data
        • Top honors for water engineer
        • Welcome Jim Giannopoulos as our new Executive General Manager, Canada
        • Engineering a new future for Melbourne’s iconic 1920s Capitol Theatre
        • GHD at the centre of Australia's hydrogen industry development
        • GHD at WEFTEC 2019
        • Rising to meet the challenges of an evolving environmental market
        • GHD rises higher in global design rankings
        • GHD transforms Queensland’s Daydream Island resort
        • Saskya Hunter named as one of Australia’s Most Innovative Engineers 2019
        • How hybrid energy will unlock the potential of Northern Australia
        • More than 100 GHD global technical leaders connect with government and business leaders in Cairns
        • GHD helps young professionals navigate their careers in the digital age
        • GHD and Australia’s gas import industry set milestone
        • GHD Advisory appoints leader for UAE
        • GHD provides remediation services to Clydebridge Chemicals
        • Showcasing Pacific development projects and partnerships
        • GHD and FCG combine to enhance client services in Northern Australia
        • GHD helps Sydney Metro Northwest project arrive on time
        • GHD internship cements passion for development work
        • GHD wins NCE100 Impact in Energy award
        • GHD ranks among top design companies in North America
        • Industry leader, Kurt Beil, joins GHD as Market Leader, Environment
        • GHD a winner in the 2019 RoSPA Awards
        • GHD Young Professional recognised by Institution of Chemical Engineers
        • GHD appoints new Operations Manager, Qatar
        • GHD Digital launches AquaLAB to transform how the water industry operates in the digital age
        • Demonstrating the value of inclusion and making it happen
        • The future of the UK water sector - interview with Stewart Tennant
        • From Iraq to Australia – Marvin’s career journey
        • GHD acheives prestigious safety certification in Ontario
        • GHD announces the appointment of new Regional Principal to lead the northeast United States
        • New GHD Advisory leader sets pathway for future growth
        • GHD doubles down on growth
        • GHD technical award recognizes groundbreaking project
        • Harnessing hydropower potential in the Philippines
        • Grantley Hall – Blending the old with the new
        • GHD strengthens its rail capability
        • GHD helps to improve connectivity and boost sustainable travel
        • GHD honored by the Greater Kitchener Waterloo Chamber of Commerce for employee engagement
        • Infrastructure event connects with European clients
        • GHD recruits transmission expert to inspire innovation in energy sector
        • GHD app design wins at inaugural NSW Roads and Maritime Services Innovation Network Initiative
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          • GHD Digital’s expansion into North America focuses on Digital Disruption and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
        • GHD Digital’s expansion into North America focuses on Digital Disruption and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
        • GHD wins Asia Pacific award for pesticide container management project in the Pacific
        • GHD expands its air and noise modelling capability
        • Looking back on the 2018 GHD Challenge
        • GHD appoints Simon Light as new General Manager for Europe and Middle East
        • Looking back on the 2018 GHD Challenge
        • GHD appoints Simon Light as new General Manager for Europe and Middle East
        • Special moments for GHD’s Spatial team
        • GHD wins place on YORConsult2 framework
        • GHD sponsors global interns as part of Australia’s New Colombo Plan
        • GHD recognized as one of Waterloo Area’s Top Employers for 2019
        • GHD receives industry accreditation for its commitment to developing young engineers
        • Advising on one of Australia’s largest infrastructure transactions
        • GHD announces new Transportation Market Leader for Australia
        • GHD appoints new Indigenous Services Leader
        • Our year in review
        • How to thrive on your career journey
        • GHD celebrates opening of Lake Jackson, Texas office
        • What happens when majestic wind turbines come to town
        • GHD sets benchmark for environmental assessments in the Philippines
        • GHD recognised as a carer-friendly employer
        • GHD engineers new neuroscience department at Monash University
        • GHD extends its global tunnelling experience
        • Wednesday is “Poppy Day”
        • GHD helps improve management of pesticide containers in the Pacific
        • GHD Digital and Orange Business Services deliver instant intelligent insights to Australasian enterprises
        • GHD helps return Blacktown Native Institution to Indigenous custodians
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          • Reducing Air Pollution - Guiding clients through the complexities of the Medium Combustion Plant Directive
        • GHD grows UAE team to help take client projects from masterplanning to reality
        • GHD to deliver Australian Sports Partnership Program to build healthy, inclusive communities through sport.
        • GHD and Olsson Fire & Risk join forces in New Zealand and Australia
        • GHD wins Bronze at International Water Association Project Innovation Awards
        • GHD appoints new Market Leader – Water in Australia
        • GHD achieves Silver Corporate Partnership status with Institution of Chemical Engineers
        • GHD partners with Jacobs for longest section of Australia’s Inland Rail program
        • Omni-Means officially adopts GHD name and brand following merger completion
        • GHD expands Intelligent Transport Systems capabilities
        • Part-time geologist, full-time dad
        • GHD Digital and Mindtree create platform-based services to cater for digital transformation
        • GHD wins Engineers Australia award for Brisbane Airport runway resurfacing
        • GHD grows in the global environmental market
        • Massive roof replacement project recognised for engineering excellence
        • GHD is responding to the ‘fourth industrial revolution’ and client demand
        • Championing diversity in the workplace
        • Global leader helps GHD transform client service
        • Global survey charts GHD’s growth trajectory
        • GHD appoints new Technical Director in UK
        • Five ways to celebrate Indigenous peoples and culture
        • Water for Women announces the first round of research award recipients
        • Tasmanian renewable energy leaders share vision for collaborative future
        • GHD’s suite of services helps a new mine to proceed
        • GHD Advisory’s Infrastructure Investment and Economics (IIE) services go global
        • GHD and Water for Women Fund celebrate World Environment Day
        • GHD provides continuity of service to Wannon Water
        • Water for Women Fund celebrates Menstrual Hygiene Day
        • GHD is bringing Paris to Doha
        • GHD wins NCE100 Excellence in Water award
        • New approach to defend infrastructure from cyberattacks
        • GHD boosts operational performance in UK transport sector
        • Proud to be LGBTI, proud to be GHD
        • Ten tips for returning to work after parental leave
        • Prestigious appointment for GHD’s chief counsel in the United States
        • GHD announces new Operations Director in Manchester, UK
        • GHD a winner in the 2018 RoSPA Awards
        • GHD helps improve transport infrastructure in Papua New Guinea
        • Trailblazer to lead GHD’s Canberra and Southern NSW business
        • GHD in New Zealand diversifies its business with the launch of GHD Digital.
        • Five technologies that will drive your freight forward faster
        • GHD expands in the UAE with new Dubai office
        • GHD stars shine at Engineering Excellence Awards
        • LNAPL clean-up guidance released
        • GHD recognised as top engineering company
        • Four inspiring pieces of advice from Jamila Rizvi
        • Groundwater discharges may become subject to the Clean Water Act
        • Engineering innovation secures civil engineering excellence award
        • GHD and the Regional Municipality of York receive OPWA award for technical innovation
        • PFAS New fact sheets provide guidance on emerging contaminants
        • When a talented photographer becomes a bridge inspector
        • World Health Day
        • Confirming our commitment to Waterloo Region
        • Global insight for Australia’s electricity networks:
        • GHD in New Zealand boosts its business to support growth
        • GHD grows security offering in Sydney
        • GHD recognised for supporting Defence reservists
        • Global industry leader in power substation design joins GHD
        • GHD to deliver concept design for raising Warragamba Dam in Sydney
        • GHD Advisory expands to North America to support asset owners
        • Top five ingredients for Badgerys Creek Aerotropolis to rise
        • A message from Water for Women on International Women’s Day
        • Six ways to position yourself for success
        • What SaaS tells you about MaaS
        • New Colombo intern discovers a new side to engineering at GHD
        • GHD expands to Guildford, UK
        • Client service helps realise world-leading energy projects
        • Shaping the Western Sydney Aerotropolis
        • Young design pioneer recognised at BIM Awards
        • Client award highlights GHD’s safety focus
        • GHD announces new Manager for Sydney
        • GHD is recognised as employer of choice for gender equality for fourth year in a row
        • GHD strengthens digital leadership
        • GHD appoints new Legal Counsel, Europe and Middle East
        • Smart Seeds grows fresh ideas for future infrastructure
        • GHD enhances services for Chinese investors
        • GHD partners with Sydney Water for drought relief
        • GHD says “Bula” to New Colombo intern in Fiji
        • Pushing the boundaries of BIM
        • GHD is part of the growth trend in the trenchless market
        • GHD boosts capabilities to support social sustainability
        • GHD strengthens hydropower capability
        • Water for Women Fund Commences - Request for Proposals for WASH Research Awards
        • GHD helps deliver Water for Women Fund
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          • Tech Sprint generates game changing solution to construction productivity problem
        • GHD strengthens Board diversity
        • GHD outlines the future of project management
        • GHD contributes to UK’s Northern Energy Task Force
        • Continuing to invest in future leadership
        • I-TAP NQ turns to fresh ideas for North Queensland’s infrastructure challenges
        • Force main replacement work wins ACEC award in Arizona
        • GHD announces Market Development Director for Europe and Middle East
        • GHD announces record performance
        • Insights from the Infrastructure Investors Forum Australia
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          • GHD’s laptop donation supports women’s health services in Wagga Wagga
        • GHD expands to Tauranga
        • Infrastructure and logistics expert joins GHD Advisory
        • Ecological restoration earns landscape architecture award
        • GHD recognised as a leader in the global environmental market
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          • GHD tops technical advisor league table
        • GHD recognised globally as a design leader
        • New facility preserves Australian history for the future
        • GHD expands contaminated land capabilities in Queensland
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          • Energy storage project opens new horizons for remote microgrid
        • GHD highlights smart solutions for the mining sector
        • GHD storms to the top at RICS Yorkshire and Humber Awards
        • Global role highlights how sport changes lives
        • GHD expands contaminated land capabilities in Queensland
        • Energy storage project opens new horizons for remote microgrid
        • GHD highlights smart solutions for the mining sector
        • GHD storms to the top at RICS Yorkshire and Humber Awards
        • Global role highlights how sport changes lives
        • GHD leadership appointments capitalise on New Zealand infrastructure trends
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          • GHD helps revitalise open channel with new parkland
        • Wastewater rehabilitation work wins project of the year in Arizona
        • GHD announces new Chairman and executive directors
        • GHD ranks among top designers in North America
        • GHD announces new UK leader
        • GHDWoodhead and Creative Spaces launch new brand in New Zealand
        • GHD enhances energy security in the Kimberley
        • GHD continues streak of outstanding waste management achievements
        • From dump to park: GHD helps turn environmental issue into Saipan’s new landmark
        • GHD expands asset management team in Auckland
        • GHD improves road safety on Pokeno to Mangatarata corridor in New Zealand
        • Digital transformation and growth expert joins GHD Advisory
        • Beaton Client Choice Awards
        • GHD earns recognition for innovative projects in York Region, Ontario
        • GHD and Omni-Means merge to expand transportation services
        • GHD helps realise landmark footbridge in time for Australian Open
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          • GHD Challenge brings together construction industry to support charities
        • GHD announces its largest office in North America
        • GHD celebrates 50 years of contributions to Canberra and beyond
        • Push to change flexibility culture for both men and women earns GHD gender equality recognition
        • GHD demonstrates inspirational consulting leadership
        • GHD celebrates outstanding public works achievements
        • GHD Advisory supports asset owners in a transforming world
        • GHD wins global award for Guam landfill closure
        • Engaging stakeholders for irrigation success in Australia’s food bowl
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          • GHD celebrates outstanding achievements in South Australia
        • GHD channels multidisciplinary skills for landmark irrigation upgrade
        • GHD switches on the tap for new water technologies
        • GHD recognized globally for Guam landfill closure
        • GHD delivers transformational engineering projects for WA
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          • GHD’s Power team boosts capacity in Newcastle
        • GHD helps realise outstanding project management achievements
        • GHD shines at New Zealand consulting engineering awards
        • GHD unites UK operations under single brand
        • GHD engineers named Australia’s innovation leaders
        • GHD continues global growth trajectory
        • GHD adds momentum to Sydney transport team
        • GHD and SMEC joint venture appointed as Independent Verifier for Gold Coast Light Rail Stage 2
        • GHD sustains performance in global environmental market
        • GHD helps realise a new health research hub for UAE
        • Auckland’s Lightpath cycleway takes the lead with prestigious award
        • GHD announces new leaders in Australia
        • Disrupting Auckland – new urban ideas take centre stage at Smart Seeds Showcase
        • GHD hits refresh on governance structure
        • GHD’s rail business gathers momentum with new appointment
        • GHD recognises client service at its best
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          • Auckland’s Lightpath shines at NZ planning awards
        • Creating a new gateway to Western Australia
        • GHD recognized among top design companies in USA and Canada
        • Leadership transition builds on GHD’s model of success
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          • GHD leaders pledge for parity for International Women’s Day
        • High five for GHD’s waste management team
        • GHD supports Arriva’s success as it retains London Overground concession
        • GHD names new Europe and Middle East leader
        • GHD’s water leader acknowledged for global contributions
        • GHD supports Arriva's success as it begins the Northern Powerhouse transformation
        • GHD Woodhead steps up in global rankings
        • GHD’s Defence business grows in Australia
        • Extended water partnership builds on a record of success
        • GHD acknowledged by Consult Australia for industry leadership
        • GHD strengthens focus on Defence project delivery
        • GHD recognised for digital leadership
        • Working together to help mitigate climate change in Ontario
        • GHD strides forward with gender equality
        • GHD engineer achieves unique certification in Guam
        • Toowoomba infrastructure project wins big
        • GHD people help reimagine Western Sydney
        • GHD helps realise artistic visions in Christchurch
        • GHD's young professionals support kids in care
        • GHD appoints transportation leader in North Queensland
        • CRA Europe adopts GHD name
        • GHD celebrates 10 years in Nowra
        • Engineers Australia commends GHD’s gender diversity focus
        • GHD steps up in global rankings
        • GHD boosts New Zealand business with high-profile appointments
        • GHD appoints Defence Leader
        • GHD’s CEO among engineering leaders
        • GHD and CRA complete integration
        • GHD improves human and environmental wellbeing
        • GHD and GHA Livigunn grow together in the UK
        • GHD helps deliver first shared street in South Australia
        • Sydney ideas bloom at Smart Seeds
        • GHD ranks highly in North America
        • Video showcases bridge replacement work
        • GHD presents water innovations in Adelaide
        • GHD enhances services for health and aged care clients
        • Graduates join consulting ranks at GHD
        • GHD celebrates 10 years in Toowoomba
        • GHD helps achieve tunnelling milestones at Grosvenor Mine
        • GHD helps realize award-winning Levi’s Stadium in California
        • Infrastructure innovation blooms with Smart Seeds
        • CRA celebrates 10 years as one of Canada’s Best Managed Companies
        • GHD leads the waste sector four years in a row
        • Environmental accolade for GHD-CRA merger
        • Strategic appointment expands GHD’s Federal business
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          • GHD ranks highly for defence services
        • GHD enhances market presence in property and buildings sector
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Groundwater QM

Groundwater quality monitoring at CCR units

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GHD prepared this advisory initially in 2015 to assist our clients that were in the process of developing the groundwater monitoring program required by 40 CFR Parts 257 and 261. We have updated this advisory to include a description of important geochemical forensic tools that can assist in the interpretation of the more recently collected groundwater monitoring data.

Under this new federal rule for Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) issued by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) on April 17, 2015, there are a number of groundwater monitoring requirements associated with CCR management units. The groundwater monitoring requirements outlined in the USEPA CCR Rule include the sampling and monitoring of groundwater for background purposes, detection programs, and assessment situations as well as during corrective action. These monitoring programs are focused on the quality of groundwater coming into an area of CCR units, the quality of the groundwater flowing under and away from these CCR units, and any potential release from a CCR unit. This advisory presents the information that our clients will need when implementing updated monitoring programs for their facilities. In addition, this advisory identifies unique evaluations that can be used to evaluation the groundwater data.

Groundwater Monitoring Requirements

The Chemicals of Concern (COCs) for the above monitoring programs are listed specifically in Appendix III and Appendix IV of the new USEPA CCR Rule. Those COCs generally comprise inorganics and metals. The COCs that must be monitored by the USEPA CCR Rule include naturally occurring inorganics (e.g., chloride and arsenic) and naturally occurring metals (e.g., boron and selenium) that are found commonly in groundwater and in the mineralogy of natural deposits. These inorganic parameters and metals are subject to changes in their solubility due to natural processes such as oxidation or reduction reactions and the activity of indigenous microbes under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Therefore, the subject COCs comprise a list of parameters that are commonly found in hydrogeologic environments (regardless of the presence of CCR units). These COCs are also subject to changes in their dissolved concentrations due to natural variations in environmental conditions (regardless of the presence of CCR units). An appropriate groundwater monitoring program, as required by the USEPA CCR Rule, must take into account the fate and transport characteristics of these naturally occurring COCs.

The USEPA CCR Rule allows for the identification of ambient or background conditions (Sections 257.93 [d to j]) for the specific COCs listed in Appendix III and Appendix IV of the Rule to separate out those COCs occurring under natural conditions from potential releases from an inactive or active CCR unit. These baseline conditions are established under the assumption of common and continuous environmental conditions across a site. In other words, the background is established assuming that the following conditions are the same during future monitoring periods:

  • Dissolved oxygen (DO) within the groundwater flow system
  • Reduction/oxidation potential (Redox)1 of the groundwater flow system
  • The number and type of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (microbes)
  • Dissolved levels of naturally occurring inorganics (metals) associated with the aquifer mineralogy (e.g., iron and manganese)

The background program outlined in the CCR Rule does not require the monitoring of changes in the overall environmental conditions as indicated by the criteria listed above. Without the proper establishment of these background environmental conditions within the groundwater system (flowing under the CCR unit), it will be difficult to discern whether an increase in a COC concentration is related to changes in overall groundwater conditions or whether the increase is due to a release from the CCR unit itself. Therefore, GHD recommends that any baseline or background monitoring of groundwater near the CCR units include the environmental indicators listed above (i.e., DO, Redox, microbes, and select metals). Not only are these indicators important in establishing an accurate detection monitoring system, but these same parameters are critical to the post-closure or post-corrective action phase at any CCR unit.

As is expected, many inactive and active CCR units will be closed because they do not meet the "Location" criteria. These closure actions will generally involve the capping of the current or former impoundment, the excavation and placement of the CCR into a new lined landfill, or the in situ stabilization of the CCR material below the water table. In addition, the corrective action for a CCR unit that is found to be leaking will require similar closure actions (i.e., capping, in situ stabilization, or removal). These closures and corrective actions will involve significant changes in precipitation recharge and changes in groundwater flow directions. These changes will have a direct impact on the overall environmental conditions discussed above (i.e., DO, Redox, microbes, and dissolved metal concentrations)2.

The changes in DO, Redox conditions, and microbial activity that would accompany a new landfill cap or large-scale in situ stabilization project would likewise affect the concentrations of the COCs in groundwater at the edge of that CCR unit or at other nearby locations. Under these circumstances, there might be an increase in specific COCs that are related to the changes in redox conditions and/or increase in anaerobic microbial activity caused, for example, by a new cap on the former impoundment.

Over the last 30 years, GHD has developed a comprehensive understanding of the potential geochemical changes to a groundwater system as result of the implementation of corrective actions or remedial measures. For example, we have been involved with a number of remedial projects where significant increases in arsenic levels downgradient of a former landfill occurred after the cap was installed. It is common for arsenic to mobilize under such anaerobic conditions. There are numerous references and past project histories that document these types of changes in groundwater conditions as a result of landfill closure or other corrective actions. (Kumpiene et al., 2008; Rochette et al., 1998; Hudgins and Harper, 1999; Hildum, 2013; and Visvanathan et al., 2004).

Many of the trace metals and other inorganics associated with CCRs are also subject to significant changes in dissolution or precipitation with changes in Redox, pH, DO, and microbial activity. Recent research (WOCA 2015) has demonstrated that concentrations of CCR-related COCs such as boron, selenium, molybdenum, lead, and arsenic, which are dissolved in groundwater, will change when the surrounding environmental conditions are modified.

In summary--given the sensitivity of the fate and transport of CCR-related COCs in groundwater to DO, Redox, microbial activity, and natural mineralogy--these parameters need to be monitored prior to and during the implementation of CCR unit closure or corrective action. GHD recommends that, at a minimum, the following field parameter data (in addition to those listed in the USEPA CCR Rule) be collected:

  • DO
  • Redox (ORP)
  • pH (monitored through a flow through cell)

The following laboratory analyses are suggested to be added to the Appendix III and IV list to better establish environmental conditions of the subject groundwater system3:

  • Dissolved and total iron and manganese
  • Total organic carbon (TOC)
  • Nitrate
  • Dissolved Methane

The field parameters listed above can be collected during the sampling event at very little cost during the documentation of other field parameters such a pH, temperature, turbidity, and fluid levels. The analytical costs for the iron and manganese analyses will range from $38 to $72, dependent upon laboratory contracts. The costs for the TOC analyses range from $20 to $40, the costs for nitrate analyses range from $10 to $20, and the dissolved methane analyses will range from $115 to $200 per sample. These additional costs are minimal when compared to the costs of assessments and re-sampling that will be required at a later date when new COCs are detected or existing COCs have increased concentrations. These additional analyses and tests should be performed quarterly for 1 to 2 years, if possible, prior to the implementation of a closure plan or a corrective action. These events will allow quantification of the seasonal variations within the groundwater system. At the minimum, at least one set of these data would be needed prior to the capping, lining, or in situ stabilization at a CCR unit.

Forensic Evaluation of Groundwater Monitoring Data

During the course of a detection monitoring or a post-closure monitoring program, unexpected detections of CCR-related COCs may be present in samples collected from one or more monitoring locations. There are several potential sources of COCs in groundwater that are not due to CCR disposal activities. For example, arsenic can be found in residues from mining and smelting, wood treatment, municipal landfill, pesticides, fertilizers, and is also found naturally is aquifer sediments. Determining the source of these COCs detected in the groundwater monitoring network may save millions of dollars in potential litigation and clean-up costs, if the source of the COCs is not related to the CCR disposal activities.

The following presents some of the geochemical forensic tools that are available and can be used to determine the source of COCs in a groundwater sample.

Specific Chemical Focus

Geochemical forensic tools may include the use of relationships between major elements, rare earth elements and trace elements, the use of elemental ratios (e.g. Si/Al, Ca/Sr, Pb/Al), fallout radionuclides, isotopic ratios, biogeochemical tracers and mineral ages. Furthermore, mineralogy, the presence or absence of heavy minerals, the chemistry of clay minerals, and grain morphology and texture may also assist in determining the source of a specific contaminant. The following section briefly presents the potential alternate sources of select coal-ash COCs and some of the most powerful geochemical tools specific to fingerprinting contaminants from CCR activities that can be used to determine their source(s). These are only some of the tools available to geochemists; the use of the right tool depends on an understanding of site conditions and history.

  1. Arsenic

    Arsenic is a naturally-occurring metalloid, often associated with sulfur minerals, and is found in coal and coal ash, in metal smelter tailings and ash, and often occurs adsorbed onto oxide coatings on soil grains. The presence of arsenic in groundwater does not necessarily indicate that CCR-related impacts have occurred. A careful evaluation of the groundwater chemistry can help determine the origin of the arsenic. For example, a high lead/arsenic ratio is sometimes indicative of impacts from a smelter (Morrison and Murphy, 2006). Elevated copper and chromium concentrations can indicate that the arsenic may be from wood preserving activities. Naturally-occurring arsenic can also be mobilized from the soil in response to a decrease in the redox state of the groundwater (USGS, 2007, Cozzarelli et. al., 2016). By examining the redox conditions at a site (as discussed in Section 2.0), as well as the concentrations of related, and unrelated analytes, the source of arsenic in groundwater can be determined.

  2. Boron

    Boron condenses in the coal ash generated from coal combustion plants. During the combustion of coal, boron is partitioned into the bottom ash, the flyash retained by particle attenuation, and fine flyash, some of which reaches the atmosphere with the stack gases (Goodarzi and Swaine, 2007; Cox, et al. 1978). As the combustion of coal subsequently contributes boron to the atmosphere, it is important to be able to pinpoint the anthropogenic sources of boron into the environment.

    The isotopic signature of boron from coal ash is distinctive from naturally occurring boron, or boron from other anthropogenic sources. Using strontium and boron isotopes together can identify coal ash contaminants within the environment, and can be used to provide definitive evidence to determine whether contamination is related to coal ash or another source (Ruhl, et al., 2014). Most importantly, the use of these isotope tracers can allow coal ash contamination to be distinguished from other, similar contamination coming from different sources in a catchment, while also linking other contaminants associated with coal ash back to the source.

  3. Lithium

    Lithium isotopes have been shown to be useful tools in delineating coal related contamination in the environment fluids (Harkness, et al. 2015). Lithium isotopes have a distinctive isotopic signature with respect to coal, particularly when coupled with boron or strontium isotopes. This multi-isotope relationship is an important tool for distinguishing contaminants sourced from multiple sources, particularly those associated with CCR to those from oil and gas wastewater, including conventional produced waters and hydraulic fracturing fluids (Harkness, et al. 2015).

  4. Molybdenum

    Molybdenite (MoS2) is used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst for the hydrogenation of coal and to remove sulfur in oil. The different industrial sources of anthropogenic molybdenum contribute to its concentration in the atmosphere. Molybdenum from these sources is ultimately dispersed through the atmosphere, before settling in water bodies and sediments. To discriminate between naturally occurring and anthropogenic molybdenum, isotope values (δ98Mo) may be used as a fingerprinting tool to determine the source of the contaminant (Chappaz, et al. 2012).

Geochemical Forensic Tools

The following section presents some of the geochemical tools that can be used to determine the source of impacts detected during groundwater monitoring. Each situation requires careful evaluation of the site conditions in order to determine the best tool for the job.

  1. FALCON Procedure

    The USEPA developed a multi-variant contaminant fingerprinting procedure called the Fingerprint Analysis of Leachate Contaminants (FALCON) procedure (USEPA, 2004). The procedure involves combining the concentrations of several parameters to create a signature (fingerprint) of a contaminant plume or source. These fingerprints can be used to determine the probability that a downgradient well in the monitoring network has been impacted by water released from the site, or by COCs from another source.

    The FALCON procedure works by characterizing the ratios between chemical constituents of a source water. If the water from that source is simply diluted, then the ratios will remain the same, regardless of the dilution factor. However, if a separate source is contaminating the groundwater, the ratios of COCs to one another will not be identical, and using the FALCON procedure will allow us to detect this new source.

    Like any real fingerprinting, chemical fingerprinting requires a sample of unknown origin (the potentially impacted well) and a reference sample for comparison (leachate from the site, and/or background water). Collection of the appropriate data before problems occur can save time and money.

    There are other procedures that rely on the ratio of one element to another (e.g., arsenic and lead) to determine the likely source or relationship between samples. The use and success of these methods relies on an understanding of the each site's history, surroundings, and geochemistry.

  2. Isotopes

    Isotopes are atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons, giving them different masses. Isotopes of an element will have the same chemical properties, but can be used as tracers because the mass differences between isotopes can be measured in the laboratory. When measuring or discussing isotopes of an element within a sample, geochemists refer to the ratio of the heavy isotope to the light isotope. This isotopic ratio is roughly analogous to the concentration of the heavy isotope in the sample.

    The ratio of the heavy to light isotope in a substance can vary depending on the origin of the substance, or the physical and chemical processes that the substance has been subjected to.

    For coal ash impoundments, isotopic analysis of some of the major constituents can help determine their origin. For example, in areas where the natural sulfate concentration in groundwater is very high, sulfate concentrations in monitoring wells alone cannot be used as an indicator of impact from a coal ash impoundment. However, the isotopic ratio of sulfur in the sulfate can provide evidence of coal ash-derived impacts. Zielinski et. al. (2005) describe a study where the isotopic ratio of sulfur in sulfate collected from groundwater downgradient of a coal ash impoundment was shown to be distinct from the local background sulfur ratio, and similar to the ratio of sulfur found in sulfate from coal ash.

    The isotopic ratios of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, among others, can be used in a similar way to help determine the source of groundwater contaminants and of the water itself. It should be noted, however, that isotopes should not be used without a strong understanding of the local hydrogeology and geochemistry, and an isotopic evaluation should only be undertaken as part of a broader sampling program.

  3. Plume Stability Analysis

    If COC concentrations have been detected in the monitoring well network, it is crucial to understand the behavior of the COCs in order to make the most appropriate decisions for corrective action, if required. An evaluation of the stability of the COC concentrations over time can provide insight into whether the impacts are recent and increasing over time, or are historical and are decreasing over time.

    Two of the tools used to determine plume behavior over time are single-well trend tests and site-wide plume stability analyses.

    As the name implies, the single-well trend test uses the data over time within a single well to determine the statistical likelihood that COC concentrations are increasing or decreasing. The results from these tests in conjunction with statistical evaluation of the baseline (pre-emplacement) data can be used to determine if COC concentration changes require remedial action, and the size of the area.

    A plume stability analysis as presented by Ricker (2008) uses the data from all site wells to calculate plume area, average plume concentration, and plume mass for each sampling event. These values can then be plotted over time to determine the statistical changes in the plume as a whole, which tends to smooth out variability within individual wells, and provide an overall picture of plume dynamics. The location of the center of mass is also plotted for each sampling event providing an understanding of the overall movement of the plume over time, if any. This holistic approach is included in USEPA guidance documents, and limits the possibility that one or two high results will unduly influence the site decision-making.

We would be happy to discuss the above approach to monitoring and the tools available to evaluate these data in more detail as it applies specifically to your facilities and associated CCR units.

For more information, please contact: 

Phil Harvey
1835 Belt Way Drive, St Louis, MO 63114
E: phil.harvey@ghd.com | T: +1 314 423 1878 

Jody Vaillancourt
651 Colby Drive, Waterloo, ON N2V 1C2
 E: jody.vaillancourt@ghd.com | T: +1 519 884 0510

Sophia Dore
2055 Niagara Falls Blvd, Niagara Falls, NY 14304
E: sophia.dore@ghd.com | T: +1 716 297 6150 


 

1  Also known as Oxidation Reduction Potential or ORP.
2  It should be noted that changes in facility operations not related to the CCR management unit could also have a similar impact on environmental conditions within the subject groundwater system. The facility changes could include, for example, the lining of the raw water feed pond or changes in the chemistry of the cooling water, or other process related changes that impact groundwater quality.
3  Additional helpful analytes in the establishment of environmental conditions are total aerobic and anaerobic microbial counts, sulfide, and arsenic speciation.

References

Chappaz, A., Lyons T.W., Gordon G.W. and Anbar A.D. (2012). Isotopic fingerprints of anthropogenic molybdenum in lake sediments. Environmental Science & Technology 46: 10934-10940.

Cox, J.A., Lundquist, G.L., Przyjazny, A. and Schmulbach, C.D. (1978). Leaching of boron from coal ash. Environmental Science & Technology 12 (6): 722-723.

Cozzarelli, I. M., Schreiber, M. E., Erickson, M. L., & Ziegler, B. A. (2016). Arsenic cycling in hydrocarbon plumes: secondary effects of natural attenuation. Groundwater, 54(1), 35-45.

Goodarzi, F. and Swaine, D.J. (1993). Behaviour of boron in coal during natural and industrial combustion processes. Energy Sources 15 (4): 609-622.

Harkness, J.S., Ruhl, L.S., Millot, R., Kloppman, W., Hower, J.C., Hsu-Kim, H., and Vengosh, A. (2015). Lithium Isotope Fingerprints in Coal and Coal Combustion Residuals from the United States. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science 13:134-137.

Hildum, B. (2013). Arsenic speciation and groundwater chemistry at a landfill site: A case study of Shepley's Hill Landfill. Masters Thesis, Boston College Persistent link: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/3234

Hudgins, M. and Harper, S. (1999). Operational characteristics of two aerobic landfill systems. Paper Presented at The Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium in Sardinia, Italy, on October 4, 1999.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2004). Fingerprint Analysis of Contaminant Data: A Forensic Tool for Evaluating Environmental Contamination. Office of Researd and Development and Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA/600/5-04-054.

Kumpiene, J., Ragnyaldsson, D., Lovgren, L., Tesfalidet, S., Gustravsson, B., Lattstrom, A., and Leffler, P. (2008). Impact of water saturation level on arsenic and metal mobility in the Fe-amended soil. Chemosphere 74 (2): 206-15.

Morrison, R., and Murphy, B. (2006). Environmental Forensics - Contaminant-Specific Guide. Elsevier, Burlington MA. 541 pp.

Roshette, E., Li, G., and Fendorf, S. (1998). Stability of Arsenate minerals in soil under biotically generated reducing conditions. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 62 (6): 1530-1537.

Ruhl, L.S., Dwyer, G.S., Hsu-Kim, H., Hower, J.C. and Vengosh, A. (2014). Boron and strontium isotopic characterization of coal combustion residuals: validation of new environmental tracers. Environ. Sci. Tech., 48:14790-14798.

USGS, 2007.  The Association of Arsenic with Redox Conditions, Depth, and Ground-Water Age in the Glacial Aquifer System of the Northern United States, Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5036, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 2007.

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