Contamination Assessment and Remediation
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What are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)?
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals that have been used widely in various industries for decades. You'll likely find PFAS in products like waterproof clothing, non-stick cookware, food packaging and firefighting foams, among others, which end up in the environment and wastewater streams, including biosolids. Their unique chemical structure makes them incredibly recalcitrant, leading to accumulation over time in water, soil, plants and living organisms, including the human body. Long-term exposure to PFAS presents potential risks, with some compounds linked to adverse health effects, including cancer, immune system disruptions and developmental issues in children.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals that have been used widely in various industries for decades. You'll likely find PFAS in products like waterproof clothing, non-stick cookware, food packaging and firefighting foams, among others, which end up in the environment and wastewater streams, including biosolids. Their unique chemical structure makes them incredibly recalcitrant, leading to accumulation over time in water, soil, plants and living organisms, including the human body. Long-term exposure to PFAS presents potential risks, with some compounds linked to adverse health effects, including cancer, immune system disruptions and developmental issues in children.
Evolving regulatory landscape: Long-term PFAS management
Aware of the impact and cost of treating wastewater with PFAS, regulators across the world are increasingly navigating compliance, risk mitigation and environmental responsibility by focusing on PFAS management through new policies, strategies and guidelines.
One example is Australia and New Zealand’s PFAS National Environmental Management Plan (NEMP) released in 2018 and updated in 2025, which includes specific criteria for biosolids application to prevent contamination of food-producing lands. Another example is the United States’ Environmental Protection Agency’s strategic roadmap, under the Clean Water Act, that outlines measures like effluent permit limits for wastewater facilities, risk assessment requirements for biosolids and state-specific guidelines.
While regulations such as these aim to mitigate the risk of PFAS exposure, they can present challenges to operational feasibility for businesses and wastewater treatment facilities. As regulations are still evolving, it is important to have strategic partners — like GHD — that can help navigate this dynamic environment.
The PFAS challenge and how to overcome it
PFAS pose intricate challenges for wastewater and biosolids management and industries that use aqueous film forming foams (AFFF) for fire suppression, requiring transitions or multi-faceted, long-term approaches, which may include replacement with environmentally acceptable alternatives or source management.
While existing methods for mitigation, destruction and alternatives show promise, there’s no “one-size-fits-all” solution. Regulatory frameworks, emerging treatment technologies and community involvement all play crucial roles in tackling the PFAS issue effectively. By proactively addressing PFAS risks, organisations can take steps to protect public health, minimise environmental impact and build trust with stakeholders.
Wastewater treatment facilities are mostly passive receivers of contaminants such as PFAS, which can enter treatment systems via multiple sources, including wastewater from residential, industrial and commercial premises. PFAS can persist through the treatment process, resulting in contamination of effluent water and biosolids. PFAS precursors found in biosolids can later degrade into more stable forms, posing potential risks when biosolids are applied to land or used in waste management systems such as effluent irrigation schemes.
Managing PFAS effectively in municipal wastewater streams requires a combination of strategies. Here’s an overview of measures that have demonstrated effectiveness:
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Source control
As part of an institutional approach, it is essential to identify and target the industries or products introducing PFAS into wastewater systems as a critical first step. For example, industrial pretreatment programs can help reduce PFAS at the source before they reach treatment facilities. -
Holistic risk assessment
Develop a conceptual site model for your wastewater or biosolids application, considering environmental conditions like soil type, groundwater presence and proximity to sensitive populations or environments. A risk profile tailored to your specific situation is vital for informed decision-making.
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Advanced treatment technologies
Current treatment methods fall into two categories:
a) Capture technologies like granular activated carbon, ion exchange resins and membrane filtration are effective at isolating PFAS but don’t eliminate them and still require PFAS residual management.
b) Destruction technologies, including thermal processes like incineration and emerging options like super critical water oxidation (SCWO) and electrochemical oxidation, can help break down PFAS compounds.
Both approaches require careful consideration for efficiency, costs, environmental impact and technology acceptance.
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Flexible management strategies
Due to evolving regulations and the emergence of new data, wastewater facilities and biosolids managers should implement adaptive strategies. Regular monitoring, along with phased implementation of advanced technologies and an openness to innovation can provide long-term resilience to such changes.
Want to go deeper?
Explore how PFAS behaves during wastewater treatment, the implications of land application of biosolids and how to assess risk under the latest Australian PFAS NEMP 3.0 guidelines and relevant regulations in the United States.
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