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          • How to activate infrastructure stimulus through accelerated assessment
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          • GHD Advisory Delivers Landmark Rehabilitation Plan for Port Terminal
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          • Fostering resilient workplace productivity
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        • Changing the world in Toronto
        • David Kinniburgh named Regional General Manager - UAE
        • Designing a net-zero energy plan with the Australian Academy of Science
        • GHD Advisory supports BP Australia’s sustainable hydrogen feasibility study
        • GHD appointed to design new Navy facilities in Western Australia
        • GHD joins Australian Hydrogen Council
        • GHD Provides Social Distancing Solution to NHS Children’s Hospital
        • GHD to implement Digital Train Control for Cross River Rail
        • GHD is leading the way in Waste Management across Australia
        • GHD is taking the lead in the competition for future talent
        • Growing our natural resources expertise with addition of Niblett Environmental Associates team
        • Landmark UAE park named Education Project of the Year
        • Preparing Australian electricity systems for large-scale hydrogen production
        • Poll shows employees are uncomfortable returning to work without social distancing measures
        • Reinventing engineering for a rapidly changing world
        • Qatar field hospital designed from scratch in less than two weeks
        • Our industrial hygiene team keeps employees safe as they return to work
        • Transforming transport in regional South Australia
        • A balancing act: Getting to grips with biodiversity offsetting and mitigation banking
        • A message from Water for Women on International Women’s Day
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        • Auckland’s Lightpath cycleway takes the lead with prestigious award
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        • Advising on one of Australia’s largest infrastructure transactions
        • Celebrating Australia’s top projects
        • Arizona water reclamation facility helps conserve groundwater
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        • Strength in North America highlights our ability to serve clients and communities in uncertain times
        • GHD Advisory named Australasia’s #1 technical advisor for transactions
        • GHD’s new NZ leader focuses on high performance
        • Demonstrating our market leadership in Canada
        • GHD appoints Sheila Mistry as People Leader for UK
        • GHD Advisory strengthens UAE team
        • Developing a first-of-its-kind mangrove park for UAE
        • Global merger delivers integrated data-led consulting
        • New operations lead will help drive growth in the northeast United States
        • GHD helps Middle East clients address energy challenges
        • GHD’s Global Digital Leader moves to North America
        • GHD helps students to embrace Indo-Pacific opportunities
        • Collaboration to provide innovative new wireless stormwater monitoring solution
        • GHD welcomes National Strategy to support a thriving hydrogen industry
        • New beginnings: How Nivine re-started her career in Australia
        • GHD Digital’s Jacyl Shaw named ‘Microsoft Executive Leader of the Year’
        • GHD reinforces strategic focus in North America
        • New operations lead will help drive growth in the northeast United States
        • GHD partners with Galliford Try on Yorkshire Water Civils Framework
        • GHD celebrates 10 years in Papua New Guinea
        • Creating a single source of truth for digital data
        • Top honors for water engineer
        • Welcome Jim Giannopoulos as our new Executive General Manager, Canada
        • Engineering a new future for Melbourne’s iconic 1920s Capitol Theatre
        • GHD at the centre of Australia's hydrogen industry development
        • GHD at WEFTEC 2019
        • Rising to meet the challenges of an evolving environmental market
        • GHD rises higher in global design rankings
        • GHD transforms Queensland’s Daydream Island resort
        • Saskya Hunter named as one of Australia’s Most Innovative Engineers 2019
        • How hybrid energy will unlock the potential of Northern Australia
        • More than 100 GHD global technical leaders connect with government and business leaders in Cairns
        • GHD helps young professionals navigate their careers in the digital age
        • GHD and Australia’s gas import industry set milestone
        • GHD Advisory appoints leader for UAE
        • GHD provides remediation services to Clydebridge Chemicals
        • Showcasing Pacific development projects and partnerships
        • GHD and FCG combine to enhance client services in Northern Australia
        • GHD helps Sydney Metro Northwest project arrive on time
        • GHD internship cements passion for development work
        • GHD wins NCE100 Impact in Energy award
        • GHD ranks among top design companies in North America
        • Industry leader, Kurt Beil, joins GHD as Market Leader, Environment
        • GHD a winner in the 2019 RoSPA Awards
        • GHD Young Professional recognised by Institution of Chemical Engineers
        • GHD appoints new Operations Manager, Qatar
        • GHD Digital launches AquaLAB to transform how the water industry operates in the digital age
        • Demonstrating the value of inclusion and making it happen
        • The future of the UK water sector - interview with Stewart Tennant
        • From Iraq to Australia – Marvin’s career journey
        • GHD acheives prestigious safety certification in Ontario
        • GHD announces the appointment of new Regional Principal to lead the northeast United States
        • New GHD Advisory leader sets pathway for future growth
        • GHD doubles down on growth
        • GHD technical award recognizes groundbreaking project
        • Harnessing hydropower potential in the Philippines
        • Grantley Hall – Blending the old with the new
        • GHD strengthens its rail capability
        • GHD helps to improve connectivity and boost sustainable travel
        • GHD honored by the Greater Kitchener Waterloo Chamber of Commerce for employee engagement
        • Infrastructure event connects with European clients
        • GHD recruits transmission expert to inspire innovation in energy sector
        • GHD app design wins at inaugural NSW Roads and Maritime Services Innovation Network Initiative
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          • GHD Digital’s expansion into North America focuses on Digital Disruption and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
        • GHD Digital’s expansion into North America focuses on Digital Disruption and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
        • GHD wins Asia Pacific award for pesticide container management project in the Pacific
        • GHD expands its air and noise modelling capability
        • Looking back on the 2018 GHD Challenge
        • GHD appoints Simon Light as new General Manager for Europe and Middle East
        • Looking back on the 2018 GHD Challenge
        • GHD appoints Simon Light as new General Manager for Europe and Middle East
        • Special moments for GHD’s Spatial team
        • GHD wins place on YORConsult2 framework
        • GHD sponsors global interns as part of Australia’s New Colombo Plan
        • GHD recognized as one of Waterloo Area’s Top Employers for 2019
        • GHD receives industry accreditation for its commitment to developing young engineers
        • Advising on one of Australia’s largest infrastructure transactions
        • GHD announces new Transportation Market Leader for Australia
        • GHD appoints new Indigenous Services Leader
        • Our year in review
        • How to thrive on your career journey
        • GHD celebrates opening of Lake Jackson, Texas office
        • What happens when majestic wind turbines come to town
        • GHD sets benchmark for environmental assessments in the Philippines
        • GHD recognised as a carer-friendly employer
        • GHD engineers new neuroscience department at Monash University
        • GHD extends its global tunnelling experience
        • Wednesday is “Poppy Day”
        • GHD helps improve management of pesticide containers in the Pacific
        • GHD Digital and Orange Business Services deliver instant intelligent insights to Australasian enterprises
        • GHD helps return Blacktown Native Institution to Indigenous custodians
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          • Reducing Air Pollution - Guiding clients through the complexities of the Medium Combustion Plant Directive
        • GHD grows UAE team to help take client projects from masterplanning to reality
        • GHD to deliver Australian Sports Partnership Program to build healthy, inclusive communities through sport.
        • GHD and Olsson Fire & Risk join forces in New Zealand and Australia
        • GHD wins Bronze at International Water Association Project Innovation Awards
        • GHD appoints new Market Leader – Water in Australia
        • GHD achieves Silver Corporate Partnership status with Institution of Chemical Engineers
        • GHD partners with Jacobs for longest section of Australia’s Inland Rail program
        • Omni-Means officially adopts GHD name and brand following merger completion
        • GHD expands Intelligent Transport Systems capabilities
        • Part-time geologist, full-time dad
        • GHD Digital and Mindtree create platform-based services to cater for digital transformation
        • GHD wins Engineers Australia award for Brisbane Airport runway resurfacing
        • GHD grows in the global environmental market
        • Massive roof replacement project recognised for engineering excellence
        • GHD is responding to the ‘fourth industrial revolution’ and client demand
        • Championing diversity in the workplace
        • Global leader helps GHD transform client service
        • Global survey charts GHD’s growth trajectory
        • GHD appoints new Technical Director in UK
        • Five ways to celebrate Indigenous peoples and culture
        • Water for Women announces the first round of research award recipients
        • Tasmanian renewable energy leaders share vision for collaborative future
        • GHD’s suite of services helps a new mine to proceed
        • GHD Advisory’s Infrastructure Investment and Economics (IIE) services go global
        • GHD and Water for Women Fund celebrate World Environment Day
        • GHD provides continuity of service to Wannon Water
        • Water for Women Fund celebrates Menstrual Hygiene Day
        • GHD is bringing Paris to Doha
        • GHD wins NCE100 Excellence in Water award
        • New approach to defend infrastructure from cyberattacks
        • GHD boosts operational performance in UK transport sector
        • Proud to be LGBTI, proud to be GHD
        • Ten tips for returning to work after parental leave
        • Prestigious appointment for GHD’s chief counsel in the United States
        • GHD announces new Operations Director in Manchester, UK
        • GHD a winner in the 2018 RoSPA Awards
        • GHD helps improve transport infrastructure in Papua New Guinea
        • Trailblazer to lead GHD’s Canberra and Southern NSW business
        • GHD in New Zealand diversifies its business with the launch of GHD Digital.
        • Five technologies that will drive your freight forward faster
        • GHD expands in the UAE with new Dubai office
        • GHD stars shine at Engineering Excellence Awards
        • LNAPL clean-up guidance released
        • GHD recognised as top engineering company
        • Four inspiring pieces of advice from Jamila Rizvi
        • Groundwater discharges may become subject to the Clean Water Act
        • Engineering innovation secures civil engineering excellence award
        • GHD and the Regional Municipality of York receive OPWA award for technical innovation
        • PFAS New fact sheets provide guidance on emerging contaminants
        • When a talented photographer becomes a bridge inspector
        • World Health Day
        • Confirming our commitment to Waterloo Region
        • Global insight for Australia’s electricity networks:
        • GHD in New Zealand boosts its business to support growth
        • GHD grows security offering in Sydney
        • GHD recognised for supporting Defence reservists
        • Global industry leader in power substation design joins GHD
        • GHD to deliver concept design for raising Warragamba Dam in Sydney
        • GHD Advisory expands to North America to support asset owners
        • Top five ingredients for Badgerys Creek Aerotropolis to rise
        • A message from Water for Women on International Women’s Day
        • Six ways to position yourself for success
        • What SaaS tells you about MaaS
        • New Colombo intern discovers a new side to engineering at GHD
        • GHD expands to Guildford, UK
        • Client service helps realise world-leading energy projects
        • Shaping the Western Sydney Aerotropolis
        • Young design pioneer recognised at BIM Awards
        • Client award highlights GHD’s safety focus
        • GHD announces new Manager for Sydney
        • GHD is recognised as employer of choice for gender equality for fourth year in a row
        • GHD strengthens digital leadership
        • GHD appoints new Legal Counsel, Europe and Middle East
        • Smart Seeds grows fresh ideas for future infrastructure
        • GHD enhances services for Chinese investors
        • GHD partners with Sydney Water for drought relief
        • GHD says “Bula” to New Colombo intern in Fiji
        • Pushing the boundaries of BIM
        • GHD is part of the growth trend in the trenchless market
        • GHD boosts capabilities to support social sustainability
        • GHD strengthens hydropower capability
        • Water for Women Fund Commences - Request for Proposals for WASH Research Awards
        • GHD helps deliver Water for Women Fund
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          • Tech Sprint generates game changing solution to construction productivity problem
        • GHD strengthens Board diversity
        • GHD outlines the future of project management
        • GHD contributes to UK’s Northern Energy Task Force
        • Continuing to invest in future leadership
        • I-TAP NQ turns to fresh ideas for North Queensland’s infrastructure challenges
        • Force main replacement work wins ACEC award in Arizona
        • GHD announces Market Development Director for Europe and Middle East
        • GHD announces record performance
        • Insights from the Infrastructure Investors Forum Australia
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          • GHD’s laptop donation supports women’s health services in Wagga Wagga
        • GHD expands to Tauranga
        • Infrastructure and logistics expert joins GHD Advisory
        • Ecological restoration earns landscape architecture award
        • GHD recognised as a leader in the global environmental market
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          • GHD tops technical advisor league table
        • GHD recognised globally as a design leader
        • New facility preserves Australian history for the future
        • GHD expands contaminated land capabilities in Queensland
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          • Energy storage project opens new horizons for remote microgrid
        • GHD highlights smart solutions for the mining sector
        • GHD storms to the top at RICS Yorkshire and Humber Awards
        • Global role highlights how sport changes lives
        • GHD expands contaminated land capabilities in Queensland
        • Energy storage project opens new horizons for remote microgrid
        • GHD highlights smart solutions for the mining sector
        • GHD storms to the top at RICS Yorkshire and Humber Awards
        • Global role highlights how sport changes lives
        • GHD leadership appointments capitalise on New Zealand infrastructure trends
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          • GHD helps revitalise open channel with new parkland
        • Wastewater rehabilitation work wins project of the year in Arizona
        • GHD announces new Chairman and executive directors
        • GHD ranks among top designers in North America
        • GHD announces new UK leader
        • GHDWoodhead and Creative Spaces launch new brand in New Zealand
        • GHD enhances energy security in the Kimberley
        • GHD continues streak of outstanding waste management achievements
        • From dump to park: GHD helps turn environmental issue into Saipan’s new landmark
        • GHD expands asset management team in Auckland
        • GHD improves road safety on Pokeno to Mangatarata corridor in New Zealand
        • Digital transformation and growth expert joins GHD Advisory
        • Beaton Client Choice Awards
        • GHD earns recognition for innovative projects in York Region, Ontario
        • GHD and Omni-Means merge to expand transportation services
        • GHD helps realise landmark footbridge in time for Australian Open
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          • GHD Challenge brings together construction industry to support charities
        • GHD announces its largest office in North America
        • GHD celebrates 50 years of contributions to Canberra and beyond
        • Push to change flexibility culture for both men and women earns GHD gender equality recognition
        • GHD demonstrates inspirational consulting leadership
        • GHD celebrates outstanding public works achievements
        • GHD Advisory supports asset owners in a transforming world
        • GHD wins global award for Guam landfill closure
        • Engaging stakeholders for irrigation success in Australia’s food bowl
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          • GHD celebrates outstanding achievements in South Australia
        • GHD channels multidisciplinary skills for landmark irrigation upgrade
        • GHD switches on the tap for new water technologies
        • GHD recognized globally for Guam landfill closure
        • GHD delivers transformational engineering projects for WA
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          • GHD’s Power team boosts capacity in Newcastle
        • GHD helps realise outstanding project management achievements
        • GHD shines at New Zealand consulting engineering awards
        • GHD unites UK operations under single brand
        • GHD engineers named Australia’s innovation leaders
        • GHD continues global growth trajectory
        • GHD adds momentum to Sydney transport team
        • GHD and SMEC joint venture appointed as Independent Verifier for Gold Coast Light Rail Stage 2
        • GHD sustains performance in global environmental market
        • GHD helps realise a new health research hub for UAE
        • Auckland’s Lightpath cycleway takes the lead with prestigious award
        • GHD announces new leaders in Australia
        • Disrupting Auckland – new urban ideas take centre stage at Smart Seeds Showcase
        • GHD hits refresh on governance structure
        • GHD’s rail business gathers momentum with new appointment
        • GHD recognises client service at its best
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          • Auckland’s Lightpath shines at NZ planning awards
        • Creating a new gateway to Western Australia
        • GHD recognized among top design companies in USA and Canada
        • Leadership transition builds on GHD’s model of success
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          • GHD leaders pledge for parity for International Women’s Day
        • High five for GHD’s waste management team
        • GHD supports Arriva’s success as it retains London Overground concession
        • GHD names new Europe and Middle East leader
        • GHD’s water leader acknowledged for global contributions
        • GHD supports Arriva's success as it begins the Northern Powerhouse transformation
        • GHD Woodhead steps up in global rankings
        • GHD’s Defence business grows in Australia
        • Extended water partnership builds on a record of success
        • GHD acknowledged by Consult Australia for industry leadership
        • GHD strengthens focus on Defence project delivery
        • GHD recognised for digital leadership
        • Working together to help mitigate climate change in Ontario
        • GHD strides forward with gender equality
        • GHD engineer achieves unique certification in Guam
        • Toowoomba infrastructure project wins big
        • GHD people help reimagine Western Sydney
        • GHD helps realise artistic visions in Christchurch
        • GHD's young professionals support kids in care
        • GHD appoints transportation leader in North Queensland
        • CRA Europe adopts GHD name
        • GHD celebrates 10 years in Nowra
        • Engineers Australia commends GHD’s gender diversity focus
        • GHD steps up in global rankings
        • GHD boosts New Zealand business with high-profile appointments
        • GHD appoints Defence Leader
        • GHD’s CEO among engineering leaders
        • GHD and CRA complete integration
        • GHD improves human and environmental wellbeing
        • GHD and GHA Livigunn grow together in the UK
        • GHD helps deliver first shared street in South Australia
        • Sydney ideas bloom at Smart Seeds
        • GHD ranks highly in North America
        • Video showcases bridge replacement work
        • GHD presents water innovations in Adelaide
        • GHD enhances services for health and aged care clients
        • Graduates join consulting ranks at GHD
        • GHD celebrates 10 years in Toowoomba
        • GHD helps achieve tunnelling milestones at Grosvenor Mine
        • GHD helps realize award-winning Levi’s Stadium in California
        • Infrastructure innovation blooms with Smart Seeds
        • CRA celebrates 10 years as one of Canada’s Best Managed Companies
        • GHD leads the waste sector four years in a row
        • Environmental accolade for GHD-CRA merger
        • Strategic appointment expands GHD’s Federal business
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          • GHD ranks highly for defence services
        • GHD enhances market presence in property and buildings sector
        • GHD supports Indigenous professionals of the future
        • GHD signs contract to transform Perth’s most congested roads
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Water falling

Water for Hydrogen

HomePerspectives

Acronyms and definitions

AcronymExplanation
CCS / CCU Carbon Capture and Storage or Carbon Capture and Utilisation
EJ, exajoules Exajoules, equal to 1 x 109 gigajoules
GL, ML, L Gigalitre, Megalitre, Litre, used for volumes of water
GW, MW Gigawatt, Megawatt
H2 Hydrogen
kWh Kilowatt-hour
LHV Lower heating value
Mtpa Million tonnes per annum

Water demand and the many colours of hydrogen

Near-zero or zero carbon emission hydrogen has the potential to make a significant contribution to overall emissions reduction in the power generation, transportation and industrial sectors globally. With the rapid exploration and expected growth in blue and green hydrogen, and as the hydrogen industry starts replacing more conventional energy sources, water use, demand and management will become increasingly important considerations. Hydrogen project proponents and the water sector will need to take an integrated approach and carefully think through the water implications for each of the different colours of hydrogen production. It is critical for the success of the energy transition that proponents identify a sustainable approach to sourcing and disposing of water, and consider how to reduce overall water demand, to avoid exacerbating water security concerns and impacting negatively upon already water-stressed communities and industries. This paper introduces water challenges and opportunities across the full spectrum – or ‘rainbow’ – of hydrogen production.

Several water-hydrogen scenarios have been explored. For example, it is possible to significantly reduce water requirements for hydrogen production if air cooling or chiller systems are utilised to meet most of the cooling demand. In some circumstances (i.e. where good quality raw water is available), this will result in water requirements of <18L raw water/kg H2 for a green hydrogen project. However, where it can be demonstrated that sufficient water is sustainably available, then proponents have the option to reduce CAPEX, footprint and energy consumption by utilising evaporative cooling, which results in water requirements in the range of 60-95 L/kg H2. Other factors which affect raw water requirements are the form of hydrogen production (e.g. blue hydrogen typically uses less water than green hydrogen), the raw water quality (e.g. higher salinity and other contaminants result in higher water requirements) and recovery of water from blowdown, brine and other waste streams, which could result in reducing raw water intake significantly while also addressing the potential environmental challenge of industrial wastewater management.

Hydrogen water usage in context

The development of a viable hydrogen industry is a crucial element of the energy transformation needed decarbonise our economies and preserve our planet. Water, and its management and use, is central both to the realisation of climate change effects upon communities and the environment and also to how our economies and systems operate to sustain human civilisation. The nexus between our water, food and energy systems and the balance between them must be understood and managed sustainably.

It is in that context that GHD acknowledge that understanding and optimising the interplay of a hydrogen economy with our water systems is crucial to our shared sustainable future. The world is already feeling the impacts of water security challenges arising through climate change and a growing demand for fresh water to support the growing population and it is imperative that the water needs of hydrogen development are delivered without exacerbating those challenges. Rather through early stage evaluation analysis of technical, environmental and social issues will maximise the opportunity to create community benefit while also facilitating certainty and expedience for project evaluation, approvals and implementation so necessary to accelerate the transition soon enough to avert a climate disaster.

Setting the scene

Hydrogen gas (‘hydrogen’) is a versatile energy carrier and feedstock. Currently, approximately 120 Mtpa (14.4 exajoules) of hydrogen is produced globally; with most of the hydrogen utilised in refining (39 Mtpa) and ammonia production (33 Mtpa)1.

Figure 1 Global hydrogen demand from 1975 to 2018

Figure 1 Global hydrogen demand from 1975 to 20183

Figure 2 Hydrogen classified according to colour, depending on its production pathway

Figure 2 Hydrogen classified according to colour, depending on its production pathway

Approximately 98 percent of current hydrogen production is from reforming methane or gasification of coal or similar materials of fossil fuel origin 3. Not only is the use of hydrogen expected to increase significantly over the next number of years as it starts replacing other energy sources such as liquid fuels for vehicles and natural gas for power generation and heating purposes, but it is also expected that the sources of hydrogen will change to include a large portion of renewable or “green” hydrogen (hydrogen generated from renewable power via water electrolysis), as well as “blue hydrogen”, that is, hydrogen produced via natural gas reforming with carbon capture and storage or utilisation (CCS/CCU).

Depending on the manner in which hydrogen is produced, it is assigned a “colour label”, for example, “green hydrogen” refers to hydrogen produced from renewable power via water electrolysis, which is carbon-free, whereas “turquoise hydrogen” refers to hydrogen produced via methane pyrolysis. The colour classification for hydrogen is shown in Figure 2 with a description of its corresponding hydrogen production process for reference.

In the shorter term, “blue hydrogen” is expected to play a larger role while electrolyser technology develops to become cheaper, more efficient and potentially more scalable. These two sources of hydrogen, along with biomass gasification, could be considered as sources compatible with sustainable, climate safe energy use with only “green” or renewable hydrogen being completely emissions free. The World Energy Transitions Outlook from IRENA estimates that the 2050 hydrogen demand will be approximately 70+ exajoules, and it is expected that two thirds will be from renewable hydrogen.

From Table 1 (click to view), published by the IEA, hydrogen from water electrolysis is expected to remain more expensive than hydrogen via reforming of natural gas for the near future, but as soon as carbon capture is included, capex for natural gas reforming (blue hydrogen production) almost doubles. In addition, while current efficiencies for hydrogen production from water electrolysis are lower than for natural gas reforming, it is expected that water electrolysis efficiencies will soon surpass that of hydrogen production via natural gas reforming, as electrolyser technology keeps developing and is utilised more for increased operating experience.

Table 1: Hydrogen Production Parameters via Various Pathways4

TechnologyParameterUnitsToday2030Long Term
Water electrolysis (green H2) CAPEX USD/kWe 900 700 450
  CAPEX5 USD/kWH2 1,350 1,050 675
  Efficiency (LHV) % 64 69 74
  Annual OPEX % of CAPEX 1.5 1.5 1.5
  Stack lifetime (operating hours) hours 95,000 95,000 100,000+
Natural gas reforming (grey H2) CAPEX USD/kWH2 910 910 910
  Efficiency (LHV) % 76 76 76
  Annual OPEX % of CAPEX 4.7 4.7 4.7
  Emissions factor kg CO2/kg H2 8.9 8.9 8.9
Natural gas reforming with CCS (blue H2) CAPEX USD/kWH2 1,680 1,360 1,280
  Efficiency (LHV) % 69 69 69
  Annual OPEX % of CAPEX 3 3 3
  CO2 capture rate % 90 90 90
  Emissions factor kg CO2/kg H2 1 1 1
           
Coal gasification (black H2) CAPEX USD/kWH2 2,670 2,670 2,670
  Efficiency (LHV) % 60 60 60
  Annual OPEX % of CAPEX 5 5 5
  Emissions factor kg CO2/kg H2 20.2 20.2 20.2
Coal gasification with CCS (can also be classified as blue H2) CAPEX USD/kWH2 2,780 2,780 2,780
  Efficiency (LHV) % 58 58 58
  Annual OPEX % of CAPEX 5 5 5
  Emissions factor kg CO2/kg H2 20.2 20.2 20.2
Coal gasification with CCS (can also be classified as blue H2) CAPEX USD/kWH2 2,780 2,780 2,780
  Efficiency (LHV) % 58 58 58
  Annual OPEX % of CAPEX 5 5 5
  CO2 capture rate % 90 90 90
  Emissions factor kg CO2/kg H2 2.1 2.1 2.1

It is therefore clear that “green” or renewable hydrogen production is expected to ramp up considerably over the next 30 years. Hydrogen production, and in particular green hydrogen production requires large volumes of water, and it is important to understand this aspect of hydrogen production and how to reduce this before hydrogen production capacity is increased significantly.

Another aspect, associated with demineralised water production required for green hydrogen, is the wastewater or brine produced from the potential need for desalination of available water sources and also the demineralisation process needed to achieve appropriate water quality for electrolysis. This stream will have an environmental impact and should be disposed in a manner that doesn’t impact waterways; this becomes more important as the capacity of green hydrogen production increases and is heavily location dependent.

This investigation was therefore launched to understand the associated water consumption with several hydrogen production pathways, with a focus on green or renewable hydrogen production.

Hydrogen production water consumption

Water is one of the key inputs for a green hydrogen plant. A holistic approach to selection of water technologies can make a significant difference in the overall water balance and viability of a project. While water and water treatment typically does not have a very large cost associated with it, finding sustainable water sources and reducing the water consumption for hydrogen production will assist to lead to renewable hydrogen production obtaining a social licence to operate. Given that renewable energy is often available in more arid parts of the world, in particular solar energy, this places even more emphasis on the reduction of water consumption and the sustainable management of water as a core element of a sustainable hydrogen project.

To produce hydrogen from steam methane reforming (grey hydrogen), which is currently the most prevalent pathway to hydrogen production the stoichiometric water consumption is 4.5 L H2O per kg of H2 produced. However, this water is demineralised water (boiler feed water quality), so that a reject from producing the demineralised water also has to be taken into account, with the rejection rate being dependent on the quality of the raw water. In addition, steam losses and losses from evaporative cooling also must be included, so that the raw water use for steam methane reforming amounts to 15-40 L H2O per kg of H2 produced.

For other reforming technologies, such as partial oxidation or autothermal reforming, the water demand may appear lower at first, but due to the steam demand for water-gas shift following the reformer to optimise hydrogen production from natural gas, the overall water demand will be very similar, and possibly slightly higher, than for steam reforming.

To produce “blue” hydrogen, CO2 emissions from reforming must be captured. Carbon capture and compression steam and cooling requirements will further increase the overall water demand for hydrogen production from natural gas reforming to approximately 18-44 L H2O per kg H2.

For hydrogen production from coal and biomass gasification (brown and black), the water consumption may be around 70 L per kg of H2 produced in the case of coal feed, and slightly lower at 60 L per kg of H2 for biomass feed to gasification, mainly due to the higher average moisture content of the biomass feedstock.

For reforming of biogas (which could also be considered green hydrogen), the stoichiometric water consumption would be very similar to that of hydrogen produced from reforming natural gas (4.5 L H2O/kg H2), but the overall demand would be slightly higher at approximately 20-45 L H2O per kg of H2 produced due to increased heating and cooling requirements to remove CO2 from the biogas prior to reforming.

Therefore, the typical hydrogen production processes that are prevalent today all require a significant amount of water to produce a kilogram of hydrogen, and a much higher amount then the often quoted stoichiometric needs for electrolysis of green hydrogen from water alone.

Green hydrogen is produced by taking renewable power, high purity water and converting to hydrogen and oxygen gas via electrolysis. The water requirement for green hydrogen is stoichiometrically 9 L of H2O per kg of H2 produced. This is higher than for natural gas reforming, where some hydrogen is already present in the feedstock (mainly CH4). In addition, commonly overlooked water supply and disposal factors include:

  • Significant cooling load for electrolysers – which can require additional 30 to 40 kg of water per kg of hydrogen for makeup in evaporative cooled systems. Over time, the stack efficiency of the electrolyser decreases, and most of the efficiency losses report to additional heating of the stack; with the result that the cooling load increases significantly over the lifetime of the stack (typically 8 to 10 years of operational time). The cooling demand for the electrolyser can typically increase by 40 to 70% from beginning of life to end of stack life.
  • Other cooling loads – such as the multi-stage compressors with intercooling to compress the produced hydrogen to a suitable pressure for storage or use.
  • Raw water feed requiring treatment to meet high purity electrolyser requirements – with around 20-40% of the water sent to waste during the treatment process, depending on the quality of the imported raw water.
  • Water disposal – due to the increased concentration of feedwater impurities into the waste streams this water can often not be discharged to the environment and requires connection to a waste treatment facility or onsite treatment or disposal.

These additional loads can lead to as much as 60 to 95 kg of H2O required per kg of green H2 produced.

Of this demand, approximately 60 to 70% is attributed to cooling water makeup, with the calculated water consumption for green hydrogen assuming full evaporative cooling. A typical breakdown for green hydrogen water utilisation is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Breakdown for green hydrogen production water demand, ~60 L H2O per kg H2

The above shows a typical green hydrogen production water demand for full evaporative cooling and assuming good quality raw water import.

All of the numbers quoted for raw water demand above assume that the raw water import to the site is fresh water of relatively good quality. If the water is brackish, seawater or industrial wastewater, the volume of raw water will increase dramatically and so will the wastewater/brine produced from water treatment at site.

A summary of water demands for various hydrogen production pathways is shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Hydrogen Production - Water Demand Accounting for Evaporative Cooling

H2 production pathwayStoichiometric demand (L/kg H2)Total demand (L/kg H2), assuming good quality raw water import and evaporative cooling

Natural Gas reforming (grey H2)

4.5

*15-40

Natural Gas reforming with carbon capture (blue H2)

4.5

*18-44

Biogas reforming (can be classified as green H2)

4.5

*20-45

Coal gasification (black H2)

Dependent on C:H ratio in coal and coal moisture content

70

Biomass gasification (can be classified as green H2)

Dependent on C:H ratio in biomass and biomass moisture content

60

Water electrolysis (green H2)

9

60-95

Note that evaporative cooling requires less capital and energy but significantly increases the water requirement. For example, an air cooled green hydrogen system should use less than 18 L/kg H2 depending on the raw water quality.
* Includes some air cooling

Replacing blue hydrogen with green hydrogen could lead to an increase in water consumption of between approximately 35 to 100% per kilogram of produced hydrogen. Given the projected dramatic growth in demand of 70 exajoule hydrogen per annum by 2050, the water consumption could be in the order of 35,000 to 55,000 GL/annum to produce all of the hydrogen from water electrolysis. While this is a relatively small volume compared to other users such as 2,800,000 GL/annum for global agriculture, 800,000 GL/annum for industrial users and 470,000 GL/annum for municipal users, most of this would signify a new additional demand and therefore increase pressure in water security as mentioned before in many parts of the world.

Therefore, reducing the water demand for green or renewable hydrogen would be beneficial. The impact that brine production and treatment or disposal would have on the local ecosystem would have to be considered as well.

To put water consumption into perspective, when green hydrogen is produced from a 10 MW electrolyser unit, 4 tpd of hydrogen is roughly produced, requiring approximately 0.24+ ML/day (240+ m3/day) of raw water. For a 1 GW green hydrogen installation, this would increase to 24 + ML/day (24,000+ m3/day), producing 400 tpd of green hydrogen.

Hydrogen carriers

In addition to hydrogen production, hydrogen is typically converted to a carrier of choice, such as ammonia, liquefied hydrogen or liquid organic hydrogen carrier. Each of these carriers require a conversion step with associated steam, boiler feed water and/or cooling water demand.

While these individual water demands should not be the main factor in selecting the carrier, it is important to consider as part of the overall water balance associated with the plant. For example, for ammonia production, including the ammonia synthesis unit and air separation unit to produce nitrogen as feedstock to the ammonia synthesis unit, the cooling load more than doubles compared to the production of gaseous compressed hydrogen alone.

However, as a large portion of this cooling duty is met through generating steam from recovery of process heat, cooling water losses from the combined plant is not proportional to the increase in cooling duty. This generated steam is in turn utilised to drive the main compressors in the ammonia synthesis plant, leading to an almost energy -neutral process unit.

As explained above, high pressure boiler feed water rather than cooling water is utilised for the ammonia synthesis unit to meet the cooling duty / recover process heat. To maintain the quality of the boiler feed water, a blowdown is required, which has to be made up from raw water import. Newer plants include blowdown water treatment, where the blowdown is processed through reverse osmosis (RO) and largely recycled to the plant, reducing the volume of make-up water (and thus raw water import) required.

Adopting ammonia as a carrier introduces an additional layer of interaction and complexity that must also be understood to fully assess the water needs of an integrated hydrogen project from a water perspective.

Reducing water demand to enable green hydrogen

To reduce the water demand for renewable hydrogen, the focus should be on reducing the cooling water make-up demand, since this parameter dominates the overall water demand. Cooling water make-up is required due to evaporative cooling losses from the cooling tower (accounting for 75% of losses from the cooling water system), and blowdown (accounting for 15% of losses), with additional small other losses.

Air cooling and alternatives

To reduce cooling water make-up demand, air cooling can be considered however its applicability is subject to location and local climactic conditions. Air cooling is typically more expensive than evaporative cooling and has a larger footprint and power demand. However, while the capital cost and power demand of the cooling system would increase, these systems have a small contribution to the overall plant cost and power demand of the project, with the electrolyser dominating both capital cost and power demand. Air cooling is limited to 40 or 50°C only, depending on the site conditions, and therefore not all wet cooling can be substituted for air cooling, but up to 50 to 60% of the overall cooling duty for the renewable hydrogen plant could be met through air cooling. This could reduce the overall water demand by 30 to 40% overall in some locations.

In addition to a smaller water demand, less cooling water blowdown would be produced, resulting in a lower volume wastewater/brine production and reduced brine management challenges and costs.

Alternatively, some electrolyser and hydrogen compressor vendors offer closed loop cooling, using chiller systems with very little water losses. In reality however the practical and economical application of these for large scale plants (with a large number of electrolyser units employed) may be a struggle. In addition, these result in additional power consumption and carbon footprint, although the power consumed is small when compared to the electrolyser power.

Technology development

The cooling duty of the electrolysers is very high. If compressed gaseous hydrogen is produced (rather than a hydrogen carrier), the cooling duty associated with the electrolysers can account for 80 to 90% of the total cooling duty associated with the plant. As electrolyser technology develops further and efficiencies increase, the cooling requirement for electrolysers will decrease, and therefore the overall cooling water demand will decrease significantly as well. If the stack efficiency increases by 15%, the cooling demand will decrease proportionally.

Another option is to reduce the stack lifetime of the electrolyser so that the cooling demand for the stack does not reach its maximum demand (end of life demand). However, compared to water costs, the stack replacement cost and time off-line for the stack replacement are currently too high to justify earlier stack replacement. The most likely future here would be that technology developers find means to extend the life of the stack without significant degradation and decrease in efficiency from beginning of life to end of life.

Sustainable water sources

Regardless of how much the water consumption of renewable hydrogen plants could be reduced by, finding sustainable water sources for hydrogen production is important. There are three most common options; utilising fresh water, utilising wastewater from industrial sources and utilising seawater desalination. Utilising fresh water likely has the lowest treatment cost but is typically not preferred as this diverts water from other economic and social users to hydrogen production.

Hydrogen hubs will typically be located with other industrial activities or settlements and therefore, there may be significant volumes of wastewater produced close to a hydrogen production facility. While it will be more expensive to treat wastewater from domestic or industrial sources to the desired quality (in particular demineralised water for electrolysis), it would not contribute a large difference in capital for the plant. In addition, it is likely that these sources of water would be closer to the plant than other fresh water sources, reducing pipeline and transmission costs. The water would also likely have a relatively low associated supply cost; or the project could be paid to take the water from another industrial site and treat it.

For large installations, it is likely that seawater desalination will be the only truly viable sustainable source of water. Using seawater would increase the raw water intake by 2.5 to 5 times, depending on the recovery ratio compared to fresh water, but seawater presents a large resource and the capital cost and power consumption of desalination is small compared to those for the electrolyser. Seawater desalination however introduces an additional suite of environmental and approvals issues including social licence concerns and planning and approval timeframes associated with ecological assessment of potential sites.

In Table 3, fresh raw water import of relatively good quality (best case) is compared against seawater import and desalination (worst case). Industrial wastewater use is expected to be somewhere between the best and worst cases, depending on the quality of the wastewater.

Table 3: Hydrogen Production - Raw Water Demand depending on Raw Water Quality and Assuming Evaporative Cooling

H2 production pathwayTotal demand (L/kg H2), assuming good quality raw water import and evaporative coolingTotal demand (L/kg H2), assuming seawater as raw water import and evaporative cooling

Natural Gas reforming (grey H2)

15-40

38-100, and up to 200

Natural Gas reforming with carbon capture (blue H2)

18-44

45-110, an up to 220

Biogas reforming (can be classified as green H2)

20-45

50-113, and up to 225

Coal gasification (black H2)

70

175-350

Biomass gasification (can be classified as green H2)

60

150-300

Water electrolysis (green H2)

60-95

150-238. and up to 475

With seawater or brackish water as raw water import, the wastewater/brine stream also becomes more pronounced and need to be carefully from a management and disposal perspective as part of the hydrogen production project planning and approvals requirements and program.

To put the energy consumption for desalination into perspective, the energy demand for the desalination plant would be less than 0.5 kWh per kg of H2 produced (for a reverse osmosis plant), compared to around 50 kWh per kg of H2 for the electrolyser. Modern desalination plants are reverse osmosis based, although other membrane technologies (forward osmosis and membrane distillation, for example) are being commercialised. At very large scale, thermal distillation units are still employed, particularly in the Middle East. The choice of desalination technology will have a fundamental impact on overall energy requirements and lifecycle cost for the production of H2 and therefore any desalination method must undergo a focused technology selection study.

One of the challenges with seawater desalination is that the facilities would typically have to be built close to the coast in order to use seawater. However, since it is likely that hydrogen products would be exported when produced at large scale, this would be convenient.

The other challenge with seawater desalination is the disposal of the brine, which could have a local impact on the marine ecosystem, and would have to be carefully managed, in particular for large scale (GW) installations. The brine could be further treated to reduce its environmental impact. Management of brine generated by desalination plants is both a techno-economic and environmental challenge. Thermal brine treatment processes (e.g evaporator crystallisers) are energy intensive, have very high associated CAPEX compared to RO and present numerous operational challenges (scaling, water chemistry).

Optimise water requirements needs an integrated approach

Opportunities to optimise a project’s overall site water requirements, and therefore effectively manage and reduce risks associated with sustainable water security and social and environmental concerns can be identified by an early, integrated approach to water supply/disposal, power demand and cooling technologies, project location and consideration of carrier technology.

The right choice of technologies (water treatment, cooling systems, water disposal), including assessment of hybrid solutions, will often vary on a project-by-project basis but all will be required to be addressed ultimately for projects to be successful.

We can therefore expect that as the green hydrogen industry comes to fruition as part of our energy transition, water for hydrogen is and will become an increasingly important part of the water industry across the world.

Authors:

Retha Coertzen

Retha Coertzen
Senior Process Engineer
+61 7 3316 3166
Margaretha.Coertzen@ghd.com

 
Katie Potts

Katie Potts
Graduate Water Engineer
+64 7 557 0125
Katie.Potts@ghd.com

 
Matthew Brannock

Matthew Brannock
Technical Director – Desalination & Brine Management
+61 7 3316 3711
Matthew.Brannock@ghd.com

 
Brendan Dagg

Brendan Dagg
Process Engineer
+61 2 4979 9934
Brendan.Dagg@ghd.com

 

For further information contact:

Rod Naylor

Rod Naylor
Global Market Leader
+61 2 9239 7744
Email Rod Naylor

Lindsey Brown

Lindsey Brown
Water Market Leader – Australia
+61 3 86878638
Email Lindsey Brown


References

[1] IEA 2019; International Energy Agency (IEA) 2020 2020a

[2] Blue Hydrogen - as part of circular carbon economy series by the Global CCS Institute

[3] IEA (2019). The Future of Hydrogen – Seizing today’s opportunities. Prepared for the G20, Japan.

[4] Converted utilizing 50 kWh/kg H2 stack efficiency and LHV of H2 as 120 MJ/kg H2.


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